Cropworms

The nematode worms Capillaria spp and Gongylonema ingluvicola infect the mucosa of the crop and oesophagous of poultry and game birds. Some have beetle or earthworms as intermediate hosts.

Signs

• Anaemia.
• Emaciation.

Post-mortem lesions

• Inflammation and thickening of mucosa of crop and oesophagus.
• White convoluted tracks in the mucosa.

Diagnosis

Microscopic examination of mucosal scraping.

Treatment

Levamisole, Coumaphos.

Prevention

Effective cleaning of housing. Avoidance of access to intermediate hosts. Routine worming.

Beak Necrosis

Introduction

A condition seen in chickens and turkeys caused by excessively fine mashed feeds.

Signs

• Feed accumulates along edges of lower beak leading to distortion and necrosis of horny tissue.
• Has been associated with curled tongue in turkeys in the past.
• This may also be associated with ulcers in the roof of the mouth (palate) which can be confused with some forms of mycotoxicosis.

Post-mortem lesions

• See signs.

Diagnosis

Clinical signs, exclusion of other causes of similar signs.

Treatment

Not usually sufficiently severe to justify medication. Mild water sanitation may help control secondary infections in the affected tissues.

Prevention

Check feed particle size by granulometry, grind less finely.

Breast Blister Signs

Introduction

A complex condition of chickens and turkeys occurring worldwide associated with trauma, leg weakness, and infection with Staphylococcus spp. bacteria. Morbidity may reach more than 50% but the condition is not fatal. Poor feather cover and caked or wet litter are predisposing factors.

• Swelling over the keel bone with bruising and discolouration.

Post-mortem lesions

• Inflammation of sternal bursa along the keel bone which may, in chronic cases, give way to scar tissue.

Diagnosis

Based on lesions.

Treatment

Not usually appropriate.

Prevention

Good litter management and handling, control of leg problems.

Aspergillosis Signs

Introduction

A fungal infectious disease, caused by Aspergillus fumigatus, in which the typical sign is gasping for breath, especially in young chicks. Sometimes the same organism causes eye lesions or chronic lesions in older birds. The fungus can infect plant material and many species of animals including birds and man. Occasionally similar lesions are produced by other species of Aspergillus or even other fungi such as Penicillium, Absidia etc.

It affects chickens, turkeys, ducks, penguins, game birds, waterfowl, etc, worldwide. The infection has an incubation period of 2-5 days. Morbidity is usually low, but may be as high as 12%. Mortality among young affected birds is 5-50%. Transmission is by inhalation exposure to an environment with a high spore count; there is usually little bird-to-bird transmission. Spores are highly resistant to disinfectants.

• Acute form:
  • Inappetance.
  • Weakness.
  • Silent gasping.
  • Rapid breathing.
  • Thirst.
  • Drowsiness.
  • Nervous signs (rare).
• Chronic Forms:
  • Ocular discharge (ocular form only).
  • Wasting.

Post-mortem lesions

• Yellow to grey nodules or plaques in lungs, air sacs, trachea, plaques in peritoneal cavity, may have greenish surface.
• Conjunctivitis/keratitis.
• Brain lesions may be seen in some birds with nervous signs.

Diagnosis

This is usually based on the signs and lesions and microscopic examination for the fungus, preferably after digestion in 10% potassium hydroxide. It may be confirmed by isolation of the fungus, typically by putting small pieces of affected tissue on Sabouraud agar. Growth occurs in 24-48 hours and colonies are powdery green/blue in appearance. Differentiate from excessive exposure to formalin or vaccinal reactions in day olds and from heat stress in older birds.

Treatment

Usually none. Environmental spraying with effective antifungal antiseptic may help reduce challenge. Amphotericin B and Nystatin have been used in high-value birds.

Prevention

Dry, good quality litter and feed, hygiene, Thiabendazole or Nystatin has been used in feed. 

Ascites

Introduction

Associated with inadequate supplies of oxygen, poor ventilation and physiology (oxygen demand, may be related to type of stock and strain). Ascites is a disease of broiler chickens occurring worldwide but especially at high altitude. The disease has a complex aetiology and is predisposed by reduced ventilation, high altitude, and respiratory disease. Morbidity is usually 1-5%, mortality 1-2% but can be 30% at high altitude. Pulmonary arterial vasoconstriction appears to be the main mechanism of the condition.

Signs

• Sudden deaths in rapidly developing birds.
• Poor development.
• Progressive weakness and abdominal distension.
• Recumbency.
• Dyspnoea.
• Possibly cyanosis.

Post-mortem lesions

• Thickening of right-side myocardium.
• Dilation of the ventricle.
• Thickening of atrioventricular valve.
• General venous congestion.
• Severe muscle congestion.
• Lungs and intestines congested.
• Liver enlargement.
• Spleen small.
• Ascites.
• Pericardial effusion.
• Microscopic - cartilage nodules increased in lung.

Diagnosis

Gross pathology is characteristic. A cardiac specific protein (Troponin T) may be measured in the blood. This may offer the ability to identify genetic predisposition. Differentiate from broiler Sudden Death Syndrome and bacterial endocarditis.

Treatment

Improve ventilation, Vitamin C (500 ppm) has been reported to be of benefit in South America.

Prevention

Good ventilation (including in incubation and chick transport), avoid any genetic tendency, control respiratory disease.

Arizona infection, Arizonosis

Introduction

Caused by the bacterium Arizona hinshawii, renamed Salmonella Arizonae. It affects turkeys, mainly in North America, and is not present in the UK turkey population. Mortality is 10-50% in young birds, older birds are asymptomatic carriers. Transmission is vertical, transovarian, and also horizontal, through faecal contamination of environment, feed etc, from long-term intestinal carriers, rodents, reptiles.

Signs

• Dejection.
• Inappetance.
• Diarrhoea.
• Vent-pasting.
• Nervous signs.
• Paralysis.
• Blindness, cloudiness in eye.
• Huddling near heat.

Post-mortem lesions

• Enlarged mottled liver.
• Unabsorbed yolk sac.
• Congestion of duodenum.
• Cheesy plugs in intestine or caecum.
• Foci in lungs.
• Salpingitis.
• Ophthalmitis.
• Pericarditis.
• Perihepatitis.

Diagnosis

Isolation and identification, methods as per Salmonella spp. Differentiate from salmonellosis, coli-septicaemia.

Treatment

Injection of streptomycin, spectinomycin, or gentamycin at the hatchery is used in some countries. Formerly in-feed medication with nitrofurans was also used.

Prevention

Eradicate from breeder population, fumigation of hatching eggs, good nest and hatchery hygiene, inject eggs or poults with antibiotics, monitor sensitivity.

Anatipestifer Disease, New Duck Syndrome, Duck Septicaemia

Introduction

An acute or chronic septicaemic disease caused by Riemerella anatipestifer, syn Pasteurella, or Moraxella a. It affects ducks of any age, sometimes turkeys, and may also be isolated from chickens, game birds and wild waterfowl. Mortality is 2-75% in young ducks. Transmission is mainly direct, bird-to-bird, via toenail scratches, especially of the duckling foot, or through respiratory epithelium during respiratory disease. It can also be by faecal contamination of feed, water or the environment where survival of the infectious agent may be prolonged. Adverse environmental conditions and pre-existing disease are predisposing factors.

Signs

• Weakness.
• Neck tucked in.
• Head/neck tremor.
• Ataxia.
• Disinclined to walk.
• Incoordination.
• Dyspnoea.
• Ocular and/or nasal discharge.
• Hyperexcitability

Post-mortem lesions

• Perihepatitis without much smell or liver damage.
• Pericarditis.
• Airsacculitis.
• Enlarged liver and spleen.
• Occasionally fibrinous meningitis.
• Salpingitis
• Purulent synovitis.
• Chronic arthritis, sometimes with erosions of the joint cartilage.

Diagnosis

Lesions, isolation and identification of organism - blood or chocolate agar in candle jar or 5% CO₂. Differentiate from duck viral enteritis, duck viral hepatitis, fowl cholera, colibacillosis, coccidiosis, chlamydiosis.

Treatment

Sulphonamides and potentiated sulphonamides are the products most commonly recommended for drinking water application. Subcutaneous injections of penicillin + dihydrostreptomycin, or streptomycin + dihydrostreptomycin are also highly effective.

Prevention

Good husbandry and hygiene, rigid depopulation and disinfection, adequate protection, 'hardening off', correct house relative humidity, sulphonamides in feed. Inactivated and attenuated vaccines available in some countries. Autogenous bacterins sometimes used.

Amyloidosis

Introduction

A Coronavirus infection of chickens with a morbidity of 50-100% and a mortality 0-25%, depending on secondary infections. Infection is via the conjunctiva or upper respiratory tract with an incubation period of 18-36 hours. The infection spreads rapidly by contact, fomites or aerosol. Some birds/viral strains can be carriers for up to 1 year. The virus, which may survive 4 weeks in premises, is sensitive to solvents, heat (56°C for 15 mins), alkalis, disinfectants (Formal 1% for 3 mins). Poor ventilation and high density are predisposing factors.

Signs

• Sudden death.
• Muscular shivering.
• Otherwise as for standard IB.

Post-mortem lesions

• Oedema of pectoral muscles and subcutaneously on abdomen, lesions progress to necrosis and scarring of deep pectorals in convalescence.
• In layers the ovules may be intensely congested.
• Other lesions of 'classical' IB may be encountered.

Diagnosis

3-5 passages in CE allantoic cavity, HA-, typical lesions, FA, ciliostatic in tracheal organ culture, cell culture (Vero, CK) only after adaptation Serology: HI, Elisa (both group specific), SN (type specific), DID (poor sensitivity, short duration, group specific).

Treatment

Sodium salicylate 1gm/litre (acute phase) where permitted - antibiotics to control secondary colibacillosis (q.v.).

Prevention

Live vaccines of appropriate sero-type and attenuation, possible reactions depending on virulence and particle size.

Breeder farm sequence

The breeder farm produces fertile eggs that will be hatched in a hatchery.

Brooding

Male and female chicks are usually reared separately until about 4-5 weeks of age. They are then reared so that they can work out who is boss (adjust the peck order), which means they will be less likely to fight with one another later on.

Growing

The growing period for layer breeders is from five to 20 weeks of age and is about four weeks less than for meat breeders. During the growing period, feed is restricted to prevent feed wastage and, for layer breeders, to improve egg production. It is even more important for meat breeders because they become too fat to breed efficiently if on full feed. Restricted feeding begins at about six weeks of age and continues until birds have commenced laying. When birds are at 5-10% egg production, a breeder ration is supplied. Birds that have been gown on restricted feed are often call ‘control fed’.

Housing

Chickens reared for breeding purpose are usually raised on litter floors similar to those used for meat chickens. They are transferred to specially designed breeder sheds, also with litter floors, at approximately 18-22 weeks. The sheds are usually divided into small sections which are suitable for about 200 hens to minimize fighting. Nests are placed in the shed, usually in the centre, so that the hens are attracted to the dark areas of the nest to lay their eggs.

Mating

Cockerels will mate with a number of hens and about 10% of cockerels to a group of hens is enough to achieve excellent fertility rates. A surplus of cockerels (15%) is placed at first and they are culled down to 11% at maturity to allow a loss of 1% over their lives. Cockerels can be fed a cheaper diet than hens and it’s a common practice to have additional cockerel feeders placed at a greater height than feeders containing hen feed.

Collection

Fertile eggs are collected as soon after laying as possible for reasons of hygiene (if the eggs are left in the nests they are more likely to have manure spread on them or be damaged). Regular collection also protects the eggs from the heat of the day. Although it is best not to clean eggs at all, eggs can be cleaned when collected by wiping with a dry cloth or steel wool. Wet cleaning is undesirable as it removed the protective cuticle from the shell. Fumigation by formaldehyde gas is carried out as soon as possible after collection, usually at the farm or sometimes at the hatchery, to kill surface bacteria without damaging the egg.

Incubation and hatching

Eggs are set in trays marked with the shed of origin so that any problems can be traced back to the source. Hatching performance is also closely monitored and the end product is a healthy chick which goes on to become a commercial layer or meat chicken.

Poultry Breeding

Poultry breeding is done by a wide range of people for diverse end uses and purposes. Poultry breeding can be divided into three mains areas which include:

• Commercial Breeding
  • For Egg production, or
  • Meat production
• Village/Backyard Breeding
  • Poultry bred for both eggs and meat on a small scale
• Fancy/Exhibition Breeding
  • Non commercial production of small poultry breeds by enthusiasts

Commercial breeding

Chicken is by far the most popular poultry species utilised by Australians for both meat and egg production. Breeding for the commercial poultry sector is on a large industrial scale and hatcheries supply both the broiler and layer industries. In Australia the term broiler is used by the industry to describe a chicken grown for meat, while the term layer is used for chickens grown and maintained for egg production. Chickens are also affectionately referred to as chooks. Other poultry species such as Turkeys, Ducks & Geese, and game birds such as Quails are also produced in Australia for meat. Emus and Ostriches are also bred for commercial purposes.

More details about Commercial Poultry Breeding and the Breeder Farm Sequence can be found below.

Village/Backyard Breeding

Many farmers and some suburban householders still like to keep their own poultry for egg and meat production. Most buy commercial crossbred hens at the point of lay and keep them in semi-intensive conditions in the yard. Some use small colony cages or even use a few layer cages in a protected spot. Others buy day-old chicks and rear their own birds.

Fancy/Exhibition Breeding

There are many breeds of poultry which play very little part in the commercial poultry industry. These are called fancy poultry and are usually kept by small producers (or fanciers) who enjoy breeding, showing and exchanging birds with other fanciers.

Chicken egg (Layer) Industry

In Australia, the chicken layer industry, or egg industry, is an important intensive animal production system. In 2011, the Australian egg industry produced 392 million dozen eggs, with Australians now eating (on average) 213 eggs per person per year. In terms of retail, 128.4 million dozen were sold across Australia in 2011, worth $523.5 million. Approximately 55% of eggs are produced in cage layer farms, with the balance coming from barn (9%) and free-range (34%) farms (Source: AECL). Backyard egg production is common in Australia and is closely tied in with Australians fondness of poultry.

Chicken eggs and egg products have traditionally been, and still are, a popular part of the human diet. The egg is formed in the reproductive organs of the female chicken. Most commercial strains of hen can lay over 260 eggs per year and some improved breeds can lay over 300 eggs in a year – this is almost an egg every day. It is not necessary for a hen to mate with a rooster before she can produce an egg. Modern types of hen have been bred so that they will lay even if there is no chance of producing a chick. Layer chicks are sexed and the females are sold as future layers and the males are humanely killed.

The eating value of eggs has long been recognised. An egg contains 12% shell (which is not eaten), however the remainder of the egg is a mix of protein, energy, minerals and vitamins. This means that eggs are a highly nutritious food that forms part of a good mixed diet. Eggs contain the substance cholesterol, which has been seen in the past as an undesirable characteristic. However, this issue has been simplified as there are ‘good’ and ‘bad’ forms of cholesterol and eggs have been shown to increase the ‘good’ form of cholesterol in the blood of people who consume eggs (Djousse and Gaziano (2008) AJCN, 87(4):964-969). Eggs also contain many other beneficial fats and amino acids. Some producers have marketed specialty eggs which are fat modified (omega-3 enriched). This is done by feeding hens on a specially selected diet.Eggs are collected as soon as possible after being laid and are held in cool storage to protect internal quality. Farmers check eggs for quality using a special lighting (candling) system. Cracked or weak-shelled eggs and other abnormal eggs are discarded. A sample of each batch of collected eggs is checked for internal quality and freshness.

Systems used to produce eggs

The farmer who produces eggs is commonly referred to as an egg producer.

         Extensive

There was once a time when every farm and many suburban households had a few chooks scavenging in the yard, getting some household scraps, and sometimes getting a handful of wheat each day. This method of farming is called extensive. The number of these farms decreased as intensive farming methods developed, allowing one person to care for large numbers of birds.

       Semi-intensive

  IntensiveUntil the 1950s, commercial egg producers had a few hundred to a few thousand hens housed in a shed with access to a yard surrounded by a 2 m high wire netting fence to keep foxes away. These were called semi-intensive farms and were often located in country areas close to the source of feed ingredients, especially wheat. Similar semi-intensive farms of a few thousand birds had become popular on the outskirts of major cities by the middle of the 1950s. This location was favoured because it was closer to the city market, where most eggs were sold.

Intensive production means large numbers of animals are kept in a small area. With the introduction of layer cages in the 1960s, farms became more intensive and larger flocks, up to 15000 birds, became common. In 1979 there were 3200 layer farms in Australia but by 1986 this number had reduced to 1700. A few very large farms, with up to 100,000 birds, developed in the 1970s. Today some farms have up to 500,000 hens in multiple level sheds.

Free-range, barn and organic egg production

The distribution of poultry farms is determined by population (where the people who will buy the eggs are living) and by the location of feed ingredients, mainly cereal grains, for the hens. It is less costly to transport eggs than it is to move the feed for hens.

Some people prefer to buy free-range and barn eggs because they object to hens being kept in cages. While organic eggs are purchased by people who value the ethos behind organic agriculture. As a result, these methods of egg production are becoming more common. Special rules were developed to identify farms which are truly free-range or barn eggs so that buyers can be sure they are getting the products they are paying a premium for. The organic egg industry also has a comprehensive set of regulations they must abide by to maintain their organic certification.

History of egg market control

1927 – State governments established egg marketing boards because the large number of small egg farmers found it difficult to bargain with the small number of large egg buying companies. The board members were mainly egg producers. The egg boards enabled farmers to set egg prices within government price control regulations. The marketing boards in each state were legally obliged to buy all eggs a farmer produced and a farmer was not allowed to sell any eggs without the agreement of the board.

1970s – By 1970, farmers had applied a lot of scientific knowledge and had become very efficient at egg production. This efficiency meant that they eventually produced more eggs than the boards could sell. It was then decided to give additional power to the boards to enable them to control the number of hens which a farmer could hold. This method of production control took some time to work, as farmers had applied scientific knowledge and improved the efficiency of egg production from each hen so dramatically that over-production continued to be a problem for some years.

Hen quotas

Production control was achieved by issuing free licenses to keep hens, called hen quotas. As farmers wished to expand, they needed to buy additional quota and the price increased by $18.00 per quota at one stage. This made it difficult for new farmers to get into the industry. During the 1980s some farmers refused to limit their bird numbers and consumers felt that prices were being kept high by the use of the quota system. As a result governments in NSW and SA deregulated the industry and disbanded the egg marketing boards, with Victoria following.

Deregulation

Egg production now operates as a free market with supply and demand determining prices. The idea is that efficient producers are able to produce quality eggs at a reasonable price while inefficient producers are forced out of the business. Larger producers are generally favoured because they can usually produce eggs at a lower cost than small producers. Except for small specialty markets, there seems to be little opportunity for small commercial farmers to compete with large scale producers in the general market and this could be said for all egg production systems. Refrigerated trucks make the transport of eggs very easy.

Cost of producing eggs:

1. Price of feed ingredients. This depends on the weather and overseas grain and protein prices.
2. Cost of rearing pullets from day-old to point of lay, or purchasing pullets at point of lay.
3. Level of mechanization on the farm. Labour costs decrease, but equipment costs increase as farms become larger, more mechanized and automated.
4. Mortality

         The General Anatomay and Physiology 

               An understanding of the anatomy and physiology of birds, and the different body systems found in the bird, is useful when an understanding of how poultry work or function, is sought. Knowledge of bird anatomy (body parts) and physiology (body function) enables the poultry industry to maximise bird performance and maintain good welfare practices. Like humans, birds eat, grow, breathe, reproduce, empty out wastes and move about. Both need food, water and air, and must protect themselves from changes in the environment.

Anatomical and physiological systems

Birds, like other animals, consist of a number of body systems which operate independently or with each other to maintain the normal activity and functioning of the animal as a whole. Each of these body systems consists of organs, which are special structures that are adapted to carry out specific activities or functions. Each organ, in turn, consists of tissues which consist of the various types of cells that ultimately provide the means for the organs and systems to carry out their activities and functions.

The study of anatomy is the study of the structure of the different cells, tissues, organs and systems. Knowledge of these structures helps to understand how they function or operate under normal circumstances. The study of how they work and function is known as physiology.

Cells

Cells reproduce by mitosis, or simple division, where one cell divides to become two – this is normal growth. However, the sex cells are the exception to this are they are formed in the gonads (ovary or testes) by meiosis and carry one instead of two of each chromosome. When two sex cells join at mating, one from the male and one from the female, the resulting cell will carry the normal cell chromosome number. The resulting cell therefore carries half of the genes of each parent. In animals like birds, this cell further divides by mitosis to become the embryo.

Not all cells are exactly alike, but depend on the function of the tissue, organ or system to which they belong. Some are glandular, others are protective, others provide support, others provide a means of communication, others provide movement, and others have a connecting function to hold tissues, organs and systems together or in place. Animals consist of systems, organs, tissues and cells that serve certain functions.

Cells have a number of special features that differentiate them from non-living things:

1. They provide cooperative support of own structures, that is, the cells, tissues, organs and systems support each other
2. They produce enzymes and facilitate the metabolic processes. These are the chemical changes (both anabolic (constructive) and catabolic (destructive)) that occur in living organisms to provide for the normal functioning of the organism or animal
3. They respond to irritation, which is defined as an inherent ability (present in all living organisms) to receive external impressions or stimuli and react to them
4. They can reproduce their own kind as a normal function
5. They provide their own protection or defence to the many potentially harmful situations encountered in their environment
6. They provide for the coordinated growth and development of their own body.

Viruses

Upon entering a cell virus particles act very similar to the cell genetic material, and can also become part of the cell’s genetic material. Under the control of the virus, the genetic material instructs the cell to make many copies of the virus.  The cell eventually ruptures to release the copies of the original virus and give rise to the symptoms of diseases caused by viruses.

Chicken meat (Broiler) Industry

Australia’s chicken meat industry, or broiler industry, has a relatively brief history when compared with the other major Australian livestock industries. There are currently more than 800 commercial meat chicken growers in Australia. Most grow chickens under contract to meat processing companies and are known as ‘contract chicken growers’. These producers grow 80% of Australia’s meat chickens.

No official Government records were kept until the mid 1960s, so the exact time when  intensive poultry production began is not known. However, industry sources estimate that three million broilers were produced in 1951, compared with an estimated 460.3 million in 2007. Most commercial meat chicken farms are intensive, highly mechanised operations that occupy relatively small areas compared with other forms of farming. Commercial broilers are run on litter floors (e.g. rice hulls, wood shavings) in large poultry sheds. Australian broilers are not kept in cages, regardless of the production system used. The main production systems are generally referred to as conventional, free range and organic.

Broiler industry facts and figures can be found at Australian Chicken Meat Federation (ACMF).

Rapid expansion of the poultry industry took place in response to demand during the 1950s. Most production during this time was in the hands of ‘backyard’ producers and larger family operations. The larger operations were often involved in the production of chickens as an offshoot of their egg-producing activities as well as being producers and/or distributors of other livestock and produce. The birthplace of the commercial industry was the outer Sydney metropolitan area, although other centres of commercial production quickly appeared near other major population centres.History of the broiler industry

In the decade 1950/51 to 1960/61, the size of the industry increased almost seven fold. In the early 1950s the first real efforts were made to develop an Australian meat chicken breed, resulting in the release of Australia’s first scientifically bred meat chicken strain in 1959. With the introduction of continuous chain processing systems, the processing of chickens became faster and more efficient and the resultant economies saw a rapid fall in price of chicken to the consumer.

As a result of these developments and the rise of the ‘integrator’ in the industry, further expansion of the commercial industry occurred in the 1960s. These vertically integrated companies (fashioned on the highly successful US meat chicken company model) owned chicken breeding and hatching operations, feed mills and chicken processing plants and contracted out the growing of chickens from day-old to slaughter weight to ‘contract growers’.

The establishment of Kentucky Fried Chicken in Australia, with its first store opening in 1968, had a major impact on the consumption of chicken. In the 12 months from 1970-1971 a total of 75 stores were opened and during the same period total Australian production increased by 38%. Coupled with further improvements in the genetic material available, refinement of the nutrition and husbandry of broiler chickens, improvements in processing technologies and further growth in demand, the industry’s output increased more than five-fold in the 1960s and more than doubled again in the 1970s. It has continued to grow steadily, although less spectacularly, over the past 30 years.

Before 1960 the traditional roast chook eaten on special occasions was either a spent layer (boiler) or a male from a layer strain which was reared to about 12-14 weeks of age especially for meat production. These male birds were crossbred layer strain birds, resulting from mating White Leghorn (WL) cockerels with Australorp (AL) hens. These are usually described in the industry as WL x AL, with the breed name of the cockerel being placed first and that of the hen last.

A history of the industry can be found at ACMF.

The chicken meat industry now operates largely through vertical integration, with company ownership of breeding farms, multiplication farms, hatcheries, feed mills, some broiler growing farms and processing plants. Three large integrated companies supply about 80% of broiler chickens marketed in Australia. The biggest of these three companies is Inghams Enterprises, followed by Bartter Enterprises and Baiada. All three of these companies are privately owned and each has farming and processing operations in at least three states. The balance of output is shared among seven medium-sized companies (each supplying between 1-3% of the market nationally), and a myriad of smaller processors.Structure and ownership of the broiler industry

Processing companies generally contract out the growing of their broiler chickens to contract chicken growers. These growers own the farm and provide the management, shedding, equipment, labour, bedding and other inputs for the rearing of the chickens. The processing company provides, and at all times owns, the chickens and provides the feed, medication and technical advice. Contract growers are paid a growing fee which currently varies from 49-64 cents per bird. The terms and conditions of the grower contracts, as well as the growing fees, are established by state government constituted committees in some states, or by negotiation between growers or groups of growers (under authorisation by ACCC) and companies in other states.

The payment generally includes a performance-based component. Approximately 800 growers produce about 80% of Australia’s meat chickens under contract to processing companies. The balance of meat chickens are produced on large company farms, or on farms owned and managed by ‘intermediary’ companies which own a number of farms, each managed by a farm manager, and who enter into contracts with the processing companies to grow out chickens on a larger scale. The three major poultry producing companies also own their own breeding farms, supplemented by some contract operators, and supply eggs to their company’s hatchery. These companies also own their own feed mills in at least some of the areas in which they operate and have their own laboratories to test samples for common poultry pathogens and other bacteria. Several companies have their own research farms. A number of the medium sized companies also own their own parent breeding farms and, in some cases, hatcheries. Each of the larger companies operating in the industry also has a product research and development facility.

Chicken is marketed throughout Australia by the large and medium sized integrated companies under various brand names through numerous outlets. Brands range from nationally recognised names to state recognised names and house brands. Numerous smaller processors also market chicken either under their own particular brand or in some cases without any brand identification, other than their name and address on the original packaging.

Feed Mill – producing feed for breeders and meat chickensA completely vertically integrated company would operate:

• Breeding Farms – producing fertile eggs
• Hatchery – producing day-old chicks
• Growing Farms – producing the end product i.e. chicken meat
• Processing Plant – to process and market chicken meat
• Veterinary Services
• Transport

                    Introduction To poultry Science

Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl (birds) farmed for their meat, eggs or feathers. These most typically are members of the orders Galliformes (such as chickens and turkeys), and Anseriformes (waterfowl such as ducks and geese).

The word poultry is often used to refer to the meat of these birds. In a more general sense, it may refer to the meat of other birds, such as pigeons or doves, or game birds like quails or pheasants. It may also refer exclusively to the most common domesticated bird across the globe, the chicken, with origins as far back as the old French word for a young chicken, poulet. Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), also referred to as fowl, are descended from the red jungle fowl of Asia.

Industry definitions

• Broiler is an American word used to describe a meat chicken.
• Chick refers to a baby bird.
• Chicken can be used when referring to young birds, the entire fowl species or the meat that is eaten by humans.
• Chook is Australian & New Zealand slang for a hen, or a cooked chicken.
• Cockerel, cock or rooster are names given to a male chicken.
• Hen is the name given to the adult female chicken.
• Pullet is the term used for the immature female layer.
• A spent hen is one that has finished its productive life.

Types of poultry

When the first fleet arrived in Australia, the cargo included poultry and since that time there have been many importations of poultry into the country. The use of domesticated birds has led to the growth of a number of industries using various breeds to create products for human use.

Type of Poultry	Number
Turkeys	18
Geese	29
Ducks	35
Wildfowls	122
Chickens	87

Chicken

Chicken is by far the most popular poultry species utilised by Australians for both meat and egg production. Chicken meat consumption has replaced beef as the primary meat consumed and egg consumption is steady and expected to increase. In Australia, the term broiler is used by the industry to describe a chicken grown for meat, while the term layer is used for chickens grown and maintained for egg production. Chickens are also affectionately referred to as chooks. There are many different chicken production systems and markets for both chicken meat and eggs:

For the broiler industry they include:

1. Intensive litter furbished sheds
2. Free range
3. Certified organic

For the layer industry they include:

1. Cage
2. Barn
3. Free range
4. Certified organic

On top of varied production systems there are also different diets that appeal to different markets including:

1. Corn fed chicken meat
2. Vegetarian eggs
3. Enriched eggs (e.g. Omega-3)

Turkey

The turkey is a domesticated variety of an American wild bird. It is used for meat products and is quite popular in Australia.

Duck

Ducks and geese are sometimes grouped together as waterfowl. Ducks are very popular and have an established part in Australian menus. In many other countries, particularly in Asia, ducks are the most popular form of poultry.

Goose

Goose meat is popular in some cultures and some demand has been developed in Australia. Most geese are still kept as ornamental birds, or as watch geese, as they will honk fiercely at intruders. The goose is related to the duck but can live by eating grass.

Game birds

‘Game’ is a word which is properly applied to wild creatures that are hunted for food. They are also sometimes called wildfowl. Many game birds have now been domesticated, but are still called game. In Australia these include pheasant, guinea fowl, quail, partridge and squab pigeon (pigeons of up to four weeks of age that have not yet flown). Other species of bird are used mainly for producing meat, but some produce eating eggs also. Quail eggs in particular are very popular. Interestingly, the quail is the smallest member of the partridge family. These species are not as efficient as chickens in converting feed into meat or eggs, but they have special appeal which ensures a market for their product.

Ostrich

The ostrich industry has grown in Australia only recently, since the international market for ostrich hides has developed. Hides, meat, oil and feathers all have some value. Ostrich eggs can be used for decorating.

Emu

This native Australian bird competes with the ostrich and has valuable oil
considered to have medicinal properties. The hides, meat and eggs are also of value. The emu is Australia’s largest native bird.